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This page documents the source and verification status of every factual claim, data point, and estimate used across both the Energy Scenario Explorer and Nuclear Safety Explorer apps. Data was last verified in March 2026.
Important Caveats:
• Estimates and projections (marked with Estimate or Projection) are based on best available data but carry inherent uncertainty. Reactor specifications for designs not yet built (fusion, some Gen IV) are vendor targets, not demonstrated performance.
• Waste volume figures for advanced reactors (MSR, HTGR, fusion) are engineering projections — no commercial fleet has operated long enough to produce definitive data. A 2022 Stanford/UBC study (Krall et al., PNAS) found that some SMR designs may produce more waste per unit energy than conventional reactors.
• Singapore energy data uses the most recent official statistics (EMA 2024/2025). Figures change annually; the app uses round baselines suitable for scenario modelling, not precise accounting.
• DAC energy requirements vary widely (250–500+ MW per MtCO₂/yr) depending on technology, climate, and energy source. The app uses an optimistic-to-moderate range.
• Land footprints for reactor sites are vendor estimates for the nuclear island only; actual site requirements (security perimeter, cooling infrastructure, exclusion zone) are larger.
• Historical accident details reflect the established consensus from IAEA, NRC, and UNSCEAR reports. Some details (exact power excursion magnitude at Chernobyl, precise tsunami height at Fukushima) have ranges in the literature; we use the most commonly cited figures.
Singapore Baseline Data
Baseline figures used in the Energy Scenario Explorer's demand calculator and carbon module.
| Indicator | Value Used | Status | Source |
|---|
| Peak electricity demand |
8,200 MW |
Verified |
EMA, Electricity Demand & Supply Outlook 2025. Actualised peak ~8,189 MW (July 2025). |
| Annual electricity consumption |
58 TWh |
Verified |
EMA, Singapore Energy Statistics, Chapter 2 (2024 data: ~58 TWh consumed, ~59.6 TWh generated). |
| Natural gas share of generation |
~94% |
Verified |
EMA, Singapore Energy Statistics, Chapter 2 (2024: ~94%; 1H 2025: 93.1%). NCCS cites ~95% as a round figure. |
| Annual CO₂ emissions |
50 Mt |
Estimate |
NCCS, Singapore Emissions Profile. Approximately 50 Mt is energy-related CO₂. Total GHG is ~75 MtCO₂e (2023). Power sector alone is ~30 Mt. The 50 Mt figure is used as a round baseline for scenario modelling of energy-system-wide displacement. |
| Grid emission factor |
0.40 tCO₂/MWh |
Verified |
EMA, Grid Emission Factor (2024: 0.4018 kgCO₂/kWh). Published on data.gov.sg. |
| Population |
6.04 million |
Verified |
Singapore Department of Statistics / Population in Brief 2025. Total population 6.04M (June 2025). |
| Total land area |
736 km² |
Verified |
SingStat, Land Area (2025: ~736.3 km²). Area continues to grow due to reclamation. |
Singapore Landmarks (Area Comparisons)
| Landmark | Area Used | Status | Source |
|---|
| Jurong Island |
3,200 ha |
Verified |
JTC Corporation. Commonly cited as ~3,000–3,200 ha after reclamation (2009). Some sources cite 30 km² (~3,000 ha). |
| Changi East Development (incl. T5) |
1,080 ha |
Verified |
Changi Airport Group, Future Developments. 1,080 ha refers to the entire Changi East development area, not Terminal 5 alone. |
| Sentosa |
500 ha |
Verified |
Sentosa Development Corporation. ~5 km² / 500 ha including reclaimed areas. |
| Gardens by the Bay |
101 ha |
Verified |
NParks / Gardens by the Bay official site. 101 hectares across three waterfront gardens. |
| Marina Bay Sands site |
15.5 ha |
Verified |
URA / Marina Bay Sands factsheet. Some sources cite 15.5–20 ha depending on scope definition. |
Energy-Intensive Industry Parameters
Power consumption ranges for hypothetical new industries in Singapore. These are order-of-magnitude estimates based on global industry data.
| Industry | Range Used | Status | Source / Basis |
|---|
| Data Centres |
50–200 MW each |
Estimate |
Uptime Institute; IEA, Data Centres and Data Transmission Networks (2024). Hyperscale data centres range 50–200+ MW. Singapore DC moratorium lifted 2022 with efficiency requirements. |
| Desalination |
20–50 MW each |
Estimate |
PUB Singapore; IDA Desalination Yearbook. Tuas SWRO plant ~30 MW. Range reflects small-to-large SWRO plants at ~3–4 kWh/m³. |
| Vertical Farming |
10–30 MW each |
Estimate |
SFA Singapore; Agritecture. Large vertical farms consume 10–40 MW depending on lighting and HVAC. Singapore targets 30% local food production by 2030 ("30 by 30"). |
| Semiconductor Fabs |
100–200 MW each |
Estimate |
TSMC annual reports; SEMI. Leading-edge fabs (3nm/2nm) draw 100–200+ MW. Singapore hosts major fabs (GlobalFoundries, Micron, UMC). |
| Green Hydrogen (Electrolysis) |
250–500 MW each |
Estimate |
IRENA, Green Hydrogen Cost Reduction (2020). 1 GW electrolyser ≈ 1 GW electrical input. 250–500 MW represents mid-scale plants. |
| Direct Air Capture |
250–500 MW per ~1 MtCO₂/yr |
Estimate |
IEA, Direct Air Capture (2022); National Academies of Sciences (2019). Published estimates range 250–500+ MW per MtCO₂/yr depending on technology and heat source. Lower bound is optimistic. |
| EV Charging Network |
2,000–4,000 MW (national) |
Projection |
LTA Singapore; McKinsey, EV Charging Infrastructure. Singapore targets all vehicles to be cleaner-energy by 2040. Peak charging demand depends on fleet size and charging patterns; 2–4 GW is a plausible upper bound for a fully electrified national fleet. |
| Synthetic Fuels (e-fuels/SAF) |
500–800 MW each |
Projection |
IEA, The Role of E-fuels (2024); Frontier Economics. Fischer-Tropsch synthesis via green hydrogen is energy-intensive. 500–800 MW per commercial-scale plant is a rough estimate. |
Modelling Parameters
| Parameter | Value | Status | Source / Basis |
|---|
| Capacity factor |
90% |
Verified |
EIA; IAEA PRIS. Global nuclear fleet average capacity factor ~80–93%. US fleet average ~93% (2023). 90% is a conservative-to-typical value. |
| Industry phase-in period |
5 years |
Estimate |
Modelling assumption for gradual industry ramp-up. Not sourced from a specific study. |
| Underground surface fraction |
30% |
Estimate |
Modelling assumption. Singapore's Underground Master Plan (URA, 2019) envisions significant subsurface use, but no specific reactor siting fraction is published. |
| Gas plant footprint |
12 ha/GW |
Estimate |
Strata, The Footprint of Energy (2017); DOE NREL land-use studies. Direct footprint of CCGT plants varies ~5–15 ha/GW. 12 ha/GW is a mid-range figure for the plant proper. |
| Gas infrastructure multiplier |
2.5× |
Estimate |
Modelling assumption to account for LNG terminal, pipelines, and storage. Singapore's SLNG terminal on Jurong Island occupies ~35 ha. Multiplier is an approximation. |
Reactor Technology Specifications
Power output, footprint, and waste figures for each reactor type modelled in the app.
Fission Small Modular Reactors
| Reactor | Spec | Value | Status | Source |
|---|
| NuScale VOYGR |
Power | 77 MWe/module |
Verified |
NuScale Power. 50 MWe design received NRC Design Certification (Jan 2023). Uprated 77 MWe design received NRC Standard Design Approval (May 2025). UAMPS project cancelled Nov 2023 due to cost; certification itself remains valid. |
| Footprint | 1.5 ha |
Estimate |
NuScale vendor documentation. Refers to the nuclear island footprint for a multi-module plant. |
| Waste | 20 m³/GW·yr |
Estimate |
Based on standard LWR spent fuel volume. ~20–30 tonnes spent fuel/yr per GWe. See waste section for caveats. |
| BWRX-300 |
Power | 300 MWe |
Verified |
GE Vernova / GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy. Under licensing review in Canada (OPG Darlington), USA, and others. |
| Footprint | 4 ha |
Estimate |
GE Hitachi vendor documentation. |
| Rolls-Royce SMR |
Power | 470 MWe |
Verified |
Rolls-Royce SMR Ltd. 450–470 MWe net depending on site conditions. UK GDA in progress. Target: 4-year construction. |
| Footprint | 6 ha |
Estimate |
Rolls-Royce SMR vendor documentation (~10 acres). |
Molten Salt Reactors
| Reactor | Spec | Value | Status | Source |
|---|
| Seaborg CMSR |
Power | 100 MWe/module |
Verified |
Seaborg Technologies (rebranded Saltfoss Energy, Apr 2025). 100 MWe per module; barge can host multiple modules (200/400/600/800 MWe). |
| Footprint | 0.5 ha |
Estimate |
Vendor estimate for barge-mounted design. Minimal land footprint since the reactor sits on the barge. |
| ThorCon MSR |
Power | 250 MWe |
Verified |
ThorCon International. Note: "IMSR" (Integral Molten Salt Reactor) is a separate design by Terrestrial Energy (195 MWe). ThorCon's design is a distinct thorium molten-salt reactor with shipyard fabrication and 4-year module swap. |
| Footprint | 3 ha |
Estimate |
ThorCon vendor documentation. |
High-Temperature Gas Reactor
| Reactor | Spec | Value | Status | Source |
|---|
| HTR-PM |
Power | 210 MWe |
Verified |
China Huaneng Group / INET, Tsinghua University. Two 250 MWt reactor modules driving one 210 MWe steam turbine. Commercial operation at Shidao Bay commenced December 6, 2023. World Nuclear News (Dec 2023). |
| Footprint | 5 ha |
Estimate |
Based on Shidao Bay site layout. Approximate nuclear island footprint. |
| Waste | 25 m³/GW·yr |
Estimate |
Higher than LWR due to bulky graphite pebble fuel form. Engineering estimate; no long-term commercial fleet data available. |
Fusion Reactors
| Reactor | Spec | Value | Status | Source |
|---|
| CFS ARC |
Power | ~400 MWe |
Projection |
Commonwealth Fusion Systems. Original ARC paper (Sorbom et al., 2015) proposed 270 MWe. 2024 Virginia commercial plant announcement targets ~400 MWe. No fusion power plant has been built yet. |
| Footprint | 5 ha |
Projection |
Vendor projection. No commercial fusion plant exists for comparison. |
| Waste | 5 m³/GW·yr |
Projection |
Theoretical estimate for neutron-activated structural materials. Depends heavily on material choices (RAFM steel, vanadium alloys, SiC). No operational data. |
| HTS Magnet | 20 T (2021) |
Verified |
CFS press release (Sep 2021); Creely et al., IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity (2022). Demonstrated 20 T field with HTS magnets. |
| Tokamak Energy ST |
Power | 200 MWe |
Projection |
Tokamak Energy Ltd. ST-E1 pilot plant targets up to 200 MWe (early 2030s). 2024 design details suggest 85 MWe net from 800 MW fusion power may be more realistic. |
| Decay period | ~100 years |
Projection |
EUROfusion; Zinkle & Snead, Annual Review of Materials Research (2014). With low-activation materials, activated components decay to clearance levels in 50–100 years. Depends on material choices. |
Waste & Land Use Data
Waste volume caveat: Waste figures for advanced reactors are engineering projections based on design studies, not operational data. A 2022 study by Krall, Macfarlane & Ewing (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences) found that some SMR designs may produce 5–35× more waste per unit energy than conventional PWRs when all waste streams (including graphite, salts, and other materials) are counted. The figures used in this app represent vitrified high-level waste volume only.
| Parameter | Value | Status | Source / Notes |
|---|
| Fission LWR HLW volume |
~20 m³/GW·yr |
Estimate |
Based on ~20–30 t spent fuel/yr per GWe and fuel assembly geometry. World Nuclear Association, Radioactive Waste Management. Vitrified HLW from reprocessing is much lower volume. Spent fuel assemblies used directly are ~20–27 m³/GW·yr bare volume. |
| MSR waste volume |
~15 m³/GW·yr |
Projection |
Engineering estimate from MSR design studies. Online fuel processing may reduce actinide waste. No commercial MSR fleet data. LeBlanc, Nuclear Engineering and Design (2010). |
| HTGR waste volume |
~25 m³/GW·yr |
Projection |
Higher due to bulky graphite pebble matrix. TRISO particles provide containment during disposal. Based on HTR-PM design parameters. INET/Tsinghua publications. |
| Fusion activated materials |
~5 m³/GW·yr |
Projection |
Theoretical. No operational fusion power plant exists. Based on DEMO reactor design studies. EUROfusion, European Fusion Roadmap. |
| Fission HLW hazard duration |
~100,000+ years |
Verified |
IAEA; NRC. Spent fuel contains long-lived isotopes (e.g., Pu-239 half-life 24,110 years; I-129 half-life 15.7 million years). Deep geological disposal is the international consensus solution. |
| Fusion waste hazard duration |
~50–100 years |
Projection |
With low-activation materials (RAFM steels, vanadium alloys). Zinkle & Snead (2014); EUROfusion materials programme. Depends on material choice. |
| Dry cask capacity |
~3 m³ (per cask, HLW equivalent) |
Estimate |
Simplified modelling metric. Actual dry casks are ~6 m tall × 2.5 m dia (outer dimensions much larger). The 3 m³ figure represents approximate vitrified HLW canister volume, not the full storage overpack. |
Radiation Physics
Physical properties of radiation types as presented in the Nuclear Safety Explorer.
| Claim | Value | Status | Source |
|---|
| Alpha particle mass |
~4 amu |
Verified |
Standard nuclear physics. Helium-4 nucleus: 2 protons + 2 neutrons. |
| Alpha speed |
~5% speed of light |
Verified |
Typical alpha energies of 4–9 MeV give velocities ~5% c. Krane, Introductory Nuclear Physics. |
| Alpha range in air |
2–10 cm |
Verified |
IAEA Safety Glossary; Shultis & Faw, Radiation Shielding. |
| Alpha ionising power |
~20× gamma |
Verified |
ICRP weighting factor for alpha: 20. Reflects high LET (Linear Energy Transfer). |
| Beta speed |
Up to ~99% c |
Verified |
High-energy beta particles are relativistic. Standard nuclear physics textbooks. |
| Beta range in air |
0.1–5 m |
Verified |
Depends on energy. Shultis & Faw, Radiation Shielding. |
| Gamma range in air |
100+ metres |
Verified |
Exponential attenuation; high-energy gammas can traverse hundreds of metres. NIST XCOM database. |
| Free neutron half-life |
~10 minutes |
Verified |
PDG (Particle Data Group): 611 ± 1 seconds (10.2 min). Mean lifetime ~878 s (~14.6 min). "~10 min" refers to the half-life specifically. |
| Pair production threshold |
>1.022 MeV |
Verified |
2 × electron rest mass energy (2 × 0.511 MeV). Standard quantum electrodynamics. |
| Boron-10 thermal neutron cross-section |
3,840 barns |
Verified |
ENDF/B-VIII nuclear data library. B-10 (n,α) cross-section at 0.025 eV: 3,840 ± 11 barns. |
| Speed of light |
3 × 10&sup8; m/s |
Verified |
NIST. Exact value: 299,792,458 m/s. |
| Shielding: paper stops alpha |
~0.1 mm |
Verified |
Standard radiation protection textbooks. Alpha range in solid material is ~tens of micrometres. |
| Shielding: 3 mm aluminium stops beta |
3 mm |
Verified |
Sufficient for most beta energies encountered in reactor contexts. IAEA. |
| Shielding: 5 cm lead attenuates gamma |
5 cm |
Verified |
~5 HVLs for Co-60 gamma (HVL ~1.2 cm in lead). Significant attenuation, not complete absorption. NIST XCOM. |
Safety Concepts & Mechanisms
| Concept | Claim | Status | Source |
|---|
| Negative temperature coefficient |
Doppler broadening response: microseconds |
Verified |
Duderstadt & Hamilton, Nuclear Reactor Analysis. Doppler effect is prompt (neutron thermalisation timescale). |
| Xenon-135 |
Strongest known neutron absorber |
Verified |
Xe-135 thermal neutron absorption cross-section: ~2.65 × 10&sup6; barns. ENDF nuclear data library. |
| Xenon pit duration |
24–48 hours |
Verified |
I-135 half-life: 6.6 hours; Xe-135 half-life: 9.2 hours. Xenon peak occurs ~11 hours after shutdown; burns off over ~24–48 hours. Lamarsh, Introduction to Nuclear Engineering. |
| UO₂ melting point |
~2,865 °C |
Verified |
IAEA-TECDOC-1496. UO₂ melting point: 2,865 ± 15 °C for stoichiometric composition. |
| UO₂ fission product retention |
95–98% |
Verified |
IAEA, Fuel Performance Under Normal Conditions. Volatile fission gases (Xe, Kr) and small amounts of I and Cs migrate; remainder retained in ceramic matrix. |
| TRISO temperature tolerance |
1,600 °C+ |
Verified |
US DOE, TRISO Particles: The Most Robust Nuclear Fuel on Earth. SiC coating integrity demonstrated to 1,600 °C; advanced coatings to 1,800 °C. |
| Graphite sublimation point |
~3,600 °C |
Verified |
CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Graphite sublimes at ~3,600–3,700 °C at atmospheric pressure. |
| PWR operating pressure |
~155 bar (2,250 psi) |
Verified |
Standard PWR parameters. Todreas & Kazimi, Nuclear Systems. Westinghouse AP1000: 155.1 bar. |
| PWR operating temperature |
~315 °C |
Verified |
Typical PWR hot leg temperature. Todreas & Kazimi, Nuclear Systems. |
| PWR share of global fleet |
~70% |
Verified |
IAEA PRIS database. As of 2025, ~300 of ~440 operating reactors are PWRs (~68–70%). |
| Sodium boiling point |
883 °C |
Verified |
CRC Handbook. Sodium boils at 883 °C at 1 atm. |
| SFR operating temperature |
~500 °C |
Verified |
Typical pool-type SFR. Waltar, Todd & Tsvetkov, Fast Spectrum Reactors. |
| MSR salt boiling point |
~1,400 °C |
Verified |
FLiBe (2LiF-BeF₂) boils at ~1,430 °C. Beneš & Konings, Comprehensive Nuclear Materials (2012). |
| MSR operating temperature |
~650–700 °C |
Verified |
MSRE operated at ~650 °C. ORNL-4449 (1969). |
| Decay heat: ~7% initially, ~1% after one day |
7% / 1% |
Verified |
Way-Wigner approximation; ANS-5.1 decay heat standard. ~6.5% at shutdown, ~1.5% after 1 hour, ~0.5–1% after 1 day. |
| Sodium thermal conductivity vs water |
~100× |
Verified |
Sodium: ~80 W/(m·K); water: ~0.6 W/(m·K). Ratio ~130×. "~100×" is a conservative round figure. |
Historical Accidents
Three Mile Island (March 28, 1979)
| Claim | Value | Status | Source |
|---|
| INES level |
5 |
Verified |
IAEA, INES: The International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale. |
| Core melt fraction |
~50% |
Verified |
NRC, TMI-2 Lessons Learned Task Force. Camera inspections (1982) and defueling (1985–1990) confirmed ~45–52% core damage. |
| Public radiation exposure |
Less than a chest X-ray |
Verified |
NRC Backgrounder; Kemeny Commission Report (1979). Average dose to ~2 million people within 50 miles: ~1 millirem above background. A chest X-ray is ~3–10 millirem. |
| Fatalities / injuries |
0 / 0 |
Verified |
NRC; Kemeny Commission. No deaths or injuries attributed to the accident. Extensive epidemiological studies found no increase in cancer rates. |
| Stuck-open PORV |
Key initiating failure |
Verified |
NRC, TMI-2 Technical Assessment. The PORV stuck open after actuation, creating a small-break LOCA. |
| Creation of INPO |
Post-TMI reform |
Verified |
INPO founded December 1979 in response to TMI. INPO: Our Story. |
Chernobyl (April 26, 1986)
| Claim | Value | Status | Source |
|---|
| INES level |
7 |
Verified |
IAEA INES scale. |
| Power surge magnitude |
~30,000 MW (~100× rated) |
Verified |
INSAG-7 (IAEA, 1992); OECD-NEA, Chernobyl: Assessment of Radiological and Health Impacts. Estimated peak: ~30,000 MWt in ~4 seconds. |
| Reactor lid weight |
~1,000 tonnes |
Verified |
The Upper Biological Shield ("Elena"): ~1,000 tonnes. INSAG-7. Some sources cite up to 2,000 t for the full upper assembly. |
| Graphite fire duration |
~10 days |
Verified |
World Nuclear Association; UNSCEAR (2008). Fire/incandescence from April 26 to approximately May 6–10. |
| Minimum control rod requirement (ORM) |
30 rods |
Verified |
INSAG-7; RBMK operating regulations. ORM (Operative Reactivity Margin) minimum was 30 rods. Only 6–8 effective rods remained during the test. |
| Positive void coefficient |
RBMK design flaw |
Verified |
INSAG-7 (IAEA, 1992). The RBMK had a positive void coefficient at low power — a critical design deficiency not present in Western LWR designs. |
| Graphite-tipped control rods (AZ-5 flaw) |
Caused reactivity spike on insertion |
Verified |
INSAG-7. The graphite displacer tips caused a momentary reactivity increase in the lower core before the boron absorber section reached the fuel zone. |
| Creation of WANO |
Post-Chernobyl reform |
Verified |
WANO founded May 1989. wano.info. |
Fukushima Daiichi (March 11, 2011)
| Claim | Value | Status | Source |
|---|
| INES level |
7 |
Verified |
IAEA INES scale. Rated Level 7 on April 12, 2011. |
| Earthquake magnitude |
9.0 |
Verified |
USGS; JMA. Variously reported as 9.0–9.1 Mw. 9.0 is the most commonly cited figure. |
| Tsunami height at site |
~14 metres |
Verified |
TEPCO; IAEA Mission Report (2011). Approximately 14–15.5 m at the Daiichi site. |
| Design basis tsunami |
5.7 m |
Verified |
TEPCO, Fukushima Nuclear Accidents Investigation Report (2012). Revised from original 3.1 m design basis in 2002. |
| Core meltdowns: 3 units |
Units 1, 2, 3 |
Verified |
TEPCO; IAEA. All three operating reactors suffered fuel melting. |
| Unit 4 hydrogen explosion source |
Shared ductwork from Unit 3 |
Verified |
TEPCO investigation report. Unit 4 was defueled; hydrogen migrated via shared standby gas treatment system ductwork. |
| Diesel generators in basements |
Destroyed by flooding |
Verified |
IAEA Mission Report; NAIIC (National Diet of Japan) investigation report (2012). |
| Onagawa plant: safely shut down |
Closer to epicentre, no damage |
Verified |
Tohoku Electric Power; IAEA. Onagawa was ~75 km from the epicentre vs ~180 km for Daiichi. Higher seawall (~14.8 m) and elevated diesel generators protected the plant. Unit 2 restarted October 2024. |
Advanced Reactor Experimental Demonstrations
| Claim | Details | Status | Source |
|---|
| MSRE freeze plug demonstration |
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1965–1969 |
Verified |
ORNL-4449; Robertson, MSRE Design and Operations Report (1965). Freeze valves were an integral part of the MSRE design and were demonstrated during operation. |
| EBR-II passive safety tests |
April 3, 1986 at Argonne National Laboratory |
Verified |
Planchon, Sackett & Golden, Nuclear Engineering and Design 101 (1987) pp. 75–90. Both loss-of-flow-without-SCRAM and loss-of-heat-sink-without-SCRAM tests resulted in safe passive shutdown. |
| HTR-10 walkaway test |
China, September 2004 |
Verified |
Wu et al., Nuclear Engineering and Design 218 (2002). Helium circulators shut off; temperature rose slowly, peaked below TRISO limits, declined passively. Zero fission product release. |
| AVR pebble-bed reactor |
Germany, 1966–1988 |
Verified |
Ziermann, Nuclear Engineering and Design 121 (1990). Reached criticality 1966, connected to grid 1967, operated until 1988. |
| HTR-PM commercial operation |
Shidao Bay, December 2023 |
Verified |
World Nuclear News, "Chinese HTR-PM demo begins commercial operation" (December 6, 2023). China Huaneng Group / CNNC. |
Fusion Safety Claims
| Claim | Value | Status | Source |
|---|
| D-T fusion temperature |
~150 million °C |
Verified |
Standard plasma physics. ~10 keV ion temperature ≈ ~100–150 million °C. Wesson, Tokamaks. |
| Fuel in plasma |
< 1 gram |
Verified |
ITER Organization; Freidberg, Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy. Typical tokamak plasma density: ~10²&sup0; particles/m³ in ~1,000 m³ volume = milligrams to grams. |
| D-T fusion neutron energy |
14.1 MeV |
Verified |
Standard D-T reaction kinematics. D + T → &sup4;He (3.5 MeV) + n (14.1 MeV). |
| Tritium half-life |
12.3 years |
Verified |
NNDC (Brookhaven National Laboratory): 12.32 ± 0.02 years. |
| Tritium: low-energy beta emitter |
Cannot penetrate skin |
Verified |
Tritium beta max energy: 18.6 keV. Range in air: ~6 mm. Cannot penetrate intact skin. NRC Health Physics guidance. |
| Tritium working inventory |
~1–2 kg |
Projection |
ITER design: ~4 kg total tritium inventory. Commercial plants may target 1–2 kg working inventory with efficient breeding. Abdou et al., Nuclear Fusion (2021). |
| Plasma cools in milliseconds if confinement lost |
Milliseconds |
Verified |
Tokamak disruption timescales: thermal quench 1–5 ms; current quench 5–50 ms. Hender et al., Nuclear Fusion (2007). |
| Meltdown: physically impossible in fusion |
Plasma density << air |
Verified |
Tokamak plasma: ~10²&sup0; particles/m³. Air: ~10²&sup5; molecules/m³. Ratio: ~10&sup5;× less dense. No conceivable meltdown mechanism. Freidberg, Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy. |
| Fission core: 80–100 tonnes uranium |
Typical PWR |
Verified |
A 1 GWe PWR core contains ~80–100 tonnes of UO₂ fuel. Todreas & Kazimi, Nuclear Systems. |
| Pu-239 half-life |
24,100 years |
Verified |
NNDC: 24,110 ± 30 years. "24,100" is a standard rounded figure. |
| Low-activation materials (RAFM, V alloys, SiC) |
Reduce activation to 50–100 yr decay |
Projection |
Zinkle & Snead, Annual Review of Materials Research 44 (2014) pp. 241–267. RAFM steels (e.g., EUROFER97) designed for low residual activation. Demonstrated in laboratory; not yet tested under full fusion neutron flux. |
Key Sources (Bibliography)
Institutional and peer-reviewed sources referenced throughout. Ordered by category.
Singapore Government & Agencies
- Energy Market Authority (EMA), Singapore Energy Statistics (annual)
- EMA, Electricity Demand and Supply Outlook 2025
- EMA, Grid Emission Factor (data.gov.sg)
- National Climate Change Secretariat (NCCS), Singapore Emissions Profile
- Department of Statistics Singapore (SingStat), Population in Brief 2025
- Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA), Underground Master Plan (2019)
- Land Transport Authority (LTA), Singapore Green Plan — Transport Sector
International Nuclear Organisations
- IAEA, INSAG-7: The Chernobyl Accident — Updating of INSAG-1 (1992)
- IAEA, INES: The International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale
- IAEA, Power Reactor Information System (PRIS) database
- NRC, TMI-2 Lessons Learned Task Force Report (NUREG-0585)
- NRC, Backgrounder on the Three Mile Island Accident
- UNSCEAR, Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation (2008)
- OECD-NEA, Chernobyl: Assessment of Radiological and Health Impacts (2002)
- World Nuclear Association, various information papers (world-nuclear.org)
Textbooks & Review Articles
- Duderstadt & Hamilton, Nuclear Reactor Analysis (Wiley, 1976)
- Todreas & Kazimi, Nuclear Systems (CRC Press, 2nd ed.)
- Lamarsh & Baratta, Introduction to Nuclear Engineering (Pearson, 4th ed.)
- Krane, Introductory Nuclear Physics (Wiley, 1988)
- Shultis & Faw, Radiation Shielding (ANS, 2000)
- Freidberg, Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy (Cambridge, 2007)
- Wesson, Tokamaks (Oxford, 4th ed., 2011)
- Waltar, Todd & Tsvetkov, Fast Spectrum Reactors (Springer, 2012)
- Zinkle & Snead, "Designing radiation resistance in materials for fusion energy," Ann. Rev. Mater. Res. 44 (2014)
- LeBlanc, "Molten salt reactors: A new beginning for an old idea," Nuclear Eng. and Design 240 (2010)
- Krall, Macfarlane & Ewing, "Nuclear waste from small modular reactors," PNAS 119 (2022)
Vendor & Industry Sources
- NuScale Power — NRC Design Certification (Jan 2023, 50 MWe); Standard Design Approval (May 2025, 77 MWe)
- GE Vernova / GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy — BWRX-300
- Rolls-Royce SMR Ltd. — UK Generic Design Assessment
- Seaborg Technologies (Saltfoss Energy) — CMSR barge design
- ThorCon International — Thorium MSR
- China Huaneng Group / INET, Tsinghua University — HTR-PM
- Commonwealth Fusion Systems — ARC / SPARC tokamak
- Tokamak Energy Ltd. — ST-E1 spherical tokamak
Data Libraries
- ENDF/B-VIII — Evaluated Nuclear Data File (Brookhaven National Laboratory)
- NNDC — National Nuclear Data Center (Brookhaven)
- NIST XCOM — Photon Cross Sections Database
- CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (CRC Press, annual)
- PDG — Particle Data Group, Review of Particle Physics